Grant Schneider, History 250: The Historian Craft, Spring 2023

Following the Morrill Act of 1862, the University of Nebraska – Lincoln was established in 1869 as a new land-grant university. Initially, the university had a traditional approach to education. It focused on instructing students’ minds and hearts, supplementing teachings of the arts and sciences with instruction in morality based on Christianity. Despite this original orientation, societal changes in American society and power struggles within Nebraska and the university caused the institution to join other universities and move toward secularism. Today, many students, alums, and Nebraska residents mistakenly believe that the university has always been a secular establishment, overlooking its early orientation. Although some may not recognize it, the University of Nebraska – Lincoln changed from a nonsectarian university rooted in Christianity into a secular institution during the late nineteenth century.

When Nebraskans began to settle the unfamiliar territory during the mid-nineteenth century, most believed that Christianity and educational institutions should be linked, convinced that Christianity was necessary for the moral instruction of their children. Nebraskan’s views were not abnormal for the time because their ideas descended from a millennium-long Euro-American understanding that religion and education were conjoined. Western education originated from the medieval Catholic cathedral schools sprinkled throughout Europe, which trained young men of nobility to become ministers. Through the centuries, education became available to more people as cathedral schools developed into universities with greater independence from the church. Universities also expanded training beyond the ministry into the rising fields of law, medicine, and statecraft. [1] Then the Protestant Reformation spread in parts of Europe during the early sixteenth century. The different Protestant denominations that emerged emphasized the importance of educating the masses so that people could read the scriptures for themselves, reinforcing the close relationship between education and religion. England was one of these Protestant nations, and from there, persecuted Christian sects crossed the Atlantic and established religious communities in the Thirteen Colonies.

Following their settlement, British Colonists in the Thirteen Colonies established sectarian colleges closely linked with various Christian denominations during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries to pass their religious beliefs to posterity. [2] By the time of the American Revolutionary War, higher education had become essential in the Thirteen Colonies, focusing on moral and civic education rooted in Christianity, which played a critical role in holding society together. Following the war, most Americans continued to believe that educational institutions had a duty to promote Christianity as a means of fostering a shared foundation for morality and a sense of responsibility to the community. John Adams exemplified this viewpoint when he wrote to the Massachusetts Militia in 1798, stating that the sustainment of the American form of government relied on a moral and religious people. [3] Although the belief in the connection between Christianity and education persisted in the generations following the Founding Fathers, Americans deviated from the customs of their ancestors by creating public schools and universities not affiliated with any particular Christian denomination. [4] This new approach to education in America combined the Protestant idea of educating the masses to have a relationship with God with the necessity for everyday citizens to have religious and moral values to uphold the newly formed republic.

The American deviation towards public nonsectarian universities began with the Land Ordinance of 1785 and the Northwestern Ordinance of 1787. The Northwestern Ordinance, in particular, was critical because it outlined the aim and organization of public schools by stating, “Religion, morality, and knowledge, being necessary to good government and the happiness of mankind, schools and the means of education shall forever be encouraged.” [5] Seventy-five years later, the Morrill Act of 1862 was passed by Congress and signed into law by President Lincoln. The act stipulated that each state could claim 30,000 acres of federal land to establish a public university. These universities aimed to promote the liberal and practical education of the industrial classes to supplement the growing country’s burgeoning agricultural and industrial needs. [6] Soon after the Morrill Act, Congress admitted Nebraska into the Union in 1867. Two years later, the University of Nebraska – Lincoln was chartered, interlacing the university with the preceding strands of Christianity and Western education.

The University of Nebraska – Lincoln initially reflected the public’s belief in “an institution permeated with an advanced moral and religious spirit but wholly free and unsectarian.” [7] The Nebraska Constitution, officially adopted by citizens in 1875, stated that “Religion, morality, and knowledge [...] being essential to good government,” the legislature had the responsibility “to encourage schools and the means of instruction.” At the same time, the Constitution mandated that public schools be “free of sectarian instruction.” [8] In compliance with the Nebraska Constitution, most members of the Board of Regents included representatives from various Christian sects. When choosing the faculty, the Board of Regents placed educated Christian ministers on the faculty representing the various strains of Christianity to keep the various church members content and because ministers were the most qualified to teach. [10] Furthermore, following a vote of the Board of Regents on January 7, 1871, Allen R. Benton became the university’s first chancellor. Benton was a Christian minister who had previously served as a college president and a professor of ancient languages. He implemented the traditional teaching style of recitation, a classical curriculum at the university, and mandatory chapel attendance, all policies supported by many students and members of the public. [11] He toured the State to build support for the new university and, helped by their shared beliefs, fostered mutual respect and admiration between himself and many Nebraskans. [12] Although there were some murmurs of discontent, the various groups within Nebraska initially agreed to collaborate for the university’s betterment. Governor Butler spoke of this unity when he spoke on behalf of Nebraskans and the Board of Regents at the opening of the university in 1871, “Upon this opening and dedicatory day, [...] let it be carved in imperishable gold upon its gates: ‘Above all sects, is truth.’” [13] Despite the initial appearance of unity, significant changes and hardships had already begun to affect Nebraskans, which would spark division and contention in the State regarding what the fledgling university should be.

During the 1860s and 1870s, as settlers began taming the vast prairie land of Nebraska, they began to feel the impact of three interrelated developments that quickly developed in post-Civil War America. First, along with the Morrill Act, the passage of the thirteen, fourteenth, and fifteenth amendments during and after the Civil War caused a surge in the popularity of egalitarianism across America. Due to this popular sentiment, higher educational opportunities became available to more Americans with a broader array of beliefs. In the case of the University of Nebraska – Lincoln, section nineteen of the Charter implemented this growing sense of egalitarianism by mandating, “No person shall because of age, sex, color or nationality be deprived of the privileges of this institution.” [14] Second, the Second Industrial Revolution took hold of America, creating novel technologies, jobs, and markets, pressing the need for young Americans well-versed in the hard sciences to enrich the rapidly expanding economy. A new curriculum was required to prepare students for new jobs, threatening to upend the classical education Benton and the conservative faculty had established. Finally, novel scientific theories and discoveries transformed humanity’s perception and control over nature, discrediting many former beliefs and superstitions. Subsequently, some individuals sought to leverage science to reassess broader conventional notions, particularly those of religion. Writing in 1876, Howard Caldwell, a student at the University of Nebraska – Lincoln, contributed to the ongoing discourse amongst Nebraskans regarding the growing conflict between Christianity and science by penning his thoughts in the university student newspaper, the Hesperian Student:

  Yet are not many of our scientists pressing it [science] into a field it should not         occupy, and setting up cold, bare scientific facts as the God before whom they bow?   They claim that the discoveries of science have done away with the history of the origin of the world as made known in the Bible, hence they do away with religion as at present understood. This leads to the question, are the theories upon which these claims are made known, or merely assumed? [15]

In addition to the rapidly changing culture, the mid-1870s brought economic and environmental calamities, which made the university's situation even more volatile. The financial Panic of 1873 caused widespread unemployment, bank failures, and agricultural decline. [16] Nebraska, which heavily relied on agriculture, was affected by this economic crisis, and many families struggled financially. As a result, the university, which depended on state funding and tuition fees, felt the impact of this economic downturn, with many students not able to afford the cost of tuition. [17] Furthermore, Nebraska faced a drought in 1874, which caused widespread crop failures and forced many farmers to leave their land. Additionally, swarms of grasshoppers descended on the state during this period, devouring crops and causing further agricultural losses. With the state struggling financially, the public gave additional attention to the question of whether the state needed a university and, if so, what the institution's aim should be. Two groups came to prominence as the public debate developed.

A faction of citizens identifying as free religionists became more vocal in Nebraska politics, using the university’s hardships to their political advantage by blaming the university’s struggles on the religious faculty and “its strong aroma of churchism.” [18] The common concern in Nebraska regarding sectarianism, as revealed in the State Constitution, began to be used by the free religionists against those who supported the Christian faculty of the university. The free religionists took nonsectarian education to its logical conclusion. If the people barred sects of Christianity from controlling the university, why should Christianity more broadly have exclusive control of the university? In 1875, an anonymous free religionist identifying as “Zay” reflected this criticism of Chancellor Benton and the faculty by writing to the State Journal:

By what right, in accordance with what law, does the chancellor of the university require the attendance of all students at the chapel services every morning to hear him recite a prayer and read a portion of the Bible! Must the youth of this free state [...] be compelled, each day, to listen to the reading of a portion of a particular book, which the Chancellor gravely calls God’s holy word, and which he interprets and expounds in furtherance of his own peculiar views? [19]

In response to “Zay” and other free religionists, another faction in the state, the traditionalists, fired back by making several general points. First, the traditionalists claimed that the free religionists were illiberal and disingenuous in seeking truth by showing undue contempt for Christianity and orthodox beliefs when making their claims. If the truth led back to Christianity after intense scrutiny, the illiberal free religionists would likely still dismiss it. Second, traditionalists claimed that free religionists were undercutting public morality by opposing the teaching of Christianity. They feared that the morality arising from separating religion from education would be superficial, based only on personal whims, and would ultimately lead to the collapse of the American system, which relied on moral self-governance. Finally, traditionalists argued that most Nebraskans and students at the university were Christians and desired to obtain an education that generally aligned with their views, and free religionists were wrong for denying the majority the means for satisfying their educational wishes. [20]

Seeing new free religionists elected to the Board of Regents and the growing hostility aimed towards the faculty, the traditional-minded Chancellor Benton expressed his concern in a letter to his father on March 12, 1875. In the letter, Benton wrote of how State Legislators formed a coalition within the Nebraska Legislature, electing themselves to the Board of Regents. Benton predicted that conflict between the two parties would continue to increase as free religionists continued to trickle into the university. [21] Benton had a reason for concern with the new composition of the Board of Regents. Although Benton was open to gradual reform, he maintained his staunch belief in the necessity of Christianity’s close relationship with education throughout his tenure. Benton exercised his authority as the Chancellor and a minister by reading scripture passages to students during mandatory chapel. Benton would briefly give a nonsectarian commentary, and then students were free to interpret and discuss the passages and come to their own conclusions. [22] When free religionists attacked the mandatory chapel time, Benton and the students claimed he did not impress religion upon them because they were free to accept or reject whatever they wanted after listening to Benton. Nevertheless, the attacks against Benton continued as free religionists assailed him for the ideas he articulated in the inaugural address he delivered when the university opened its doors in 1871:

Can the State have anything to do with religion? [...] Is it true that education in our universities founded by the State, must be Atheistic---without God? [...] While the University has nothing to do with “isms,” however reputable by age or the number of their adherents, she must always be interested in the truth, and all truth is permeated with the idea of God. History, science, literature, mind, matter, all are interpenetrated with this idea, and to ignore it, the University must ignore the most momentous truths and facts [...] The average religious character of our people is such, that they will demand a distinct and an unequivocal recognition, in the daily exercises of their University, of the principles of our common Christianity; and thus the University will simply reflect the average religious character of our people. [23]

Support for Benton’s view of non-denominational Christian principles guiding the university failed to garner enough support from Nebraskans and Christians for two reasons. First, the small and struggling university was not a priority for many Nebraskans because of the harsh economic conditions during Benton’s tenure. Why should a farmer, struggling to put food on the table, care about an insignificant university? Second, the Christians who cared enough about the university were not interested in advocating for the equal treatment of other Christian sects; instead, they began making plans for their own sectarian universities. [24] Modern readers may find this odd, but at the time, Christians typically held more allegiance to their sect than to their broader shared religion of Christianity. As a result of these developments, Benton soon became weary of the growing struggle over the university, he eventually resigned in the summer of 1876, opting to leave the strife, return to Indianapolis, and become president of North-Western Christian University. Despite the turbulent circumstances, Benton left the University of Nebraska – Lincoln in an improving condition, however, the religious issue would continue to grow.

After Benton left the university, the Board of Regents chose Edmund Burke Fairfield as the next Chancellor. Fairfield was well-known at the time, having been an active participant in Michigan politics, a minister, and the president of Hillsdale College until 1870. [25] Fairfield shared many conservative beliefs with his predecessor, perpetuating the traditionalism at the University of Nebraska - Lincoln. Many Nebraskans initially accepted him enthusiastically, including some free religionists in Nebraska newspapers who believed he would bring peace to the state and guide the university into the future, however, this statewide unity soon dissipated. [26] Unlike Benton, Fairfield was a political and stubborn man, lacking the diplomatic touch when governing the university's affairs, which was a detriment to himself, the faculty, and the university. After a few years of his governing style, the university came under public scrutiny again in 1878, and the public raised the question of religion once more. The free religionists became increasingly upset with the continued mixing of religion and public education at the university. They accused Fairfield of only hiring people who shared his religious views, along with other scandalous accusations. Furthermore, as Benton had predicted, a disagreement arose between Fairfield and new free Religionist faculty members. The aim of the new faculty members was to modernize the university's education. Chiefly amongst the desired reforms was a move towards secularism, challenging the traditionalist faculty members. [27] Fairfield, perceiving that the new faculty sought to bring secularism into the university, planned to zealously defend the ideas that he expressed in his inaugural address in 1876:

[...] the American university, as sustained by the state, is not expected to maintain a theological faculty. [...] Here the absence of the theological faculty represents the independence of church and state. [...] But let not this by any means be understood to imply that an American state university is to be either practically or speculatively, positively or negatively, Atheistic. The existence of the one personal, ever-living, self-existent First Cause is the central truth of all truth, the foundation fact of all science. [...] Ethics-Christian ethics-belong eminently to the American university. [28]

The climax of the years-long conflict determining the future of the University of Nebraska – Lincoln drew closer as new non-clerical Regents and faculty continued to join the university. Soon, a noticeable divide emerged that coincided with religious beliefs. The new professors, Woodberry, Emerson, and Church led the free religionist reformers on the faculty who supported the university adopting a secular and scientific approach to education. At the same time, Fairfield and older faculty members sought to maintain the status quo regarding religion’s role in the university. [29] Tensions rose in 1878 when, under the guise of desiring to economize, the Board of Regents moved to fire Professor Woodberry, which many believed Fairfield orchestrated due to the two men’s conflicting views and mutual dislike for each other. Woodberry survived the dismissal motion in the summer, but he eventually resigned later that year, with many speculating that Fairfield bullied him into leaving the institution. [30] Even after Woodberry’s resignation, Fairfield’s governance continued to stir controversy amongst the public. The Nebraska Legislature soon became involved, which led to testimony from members of the Board of Regents who gave the impression that Fairfield’s governance sowed distrust and division within the university. Fairfield claimed that the university was not divided; instead, he claimed he was unfairly attacked by outsiders grounded in religious bigotry. [31]

Then in the spring of 1880, the Board of Regents decided to bring Professor Woodberry back to the university, encouraging the free religionist reformers on the faculty. The reformers pressed ahead and achieved some victories, such as a school schedule based on two semesters and a popular elective system for juniors and seniors. In response, Fairfield struck back by coming before the Board of Regents in January of 1882, advocating against the reforms and in favor of returning to the trimester schedule. In addition to those requests, Fairfield asked to combine the Industrial College with the College of Literature, Arts, and Science, giving him a sturdy traditionalist majority to stop the reformers in the College of Literature, Arts, and Science. Fairfield’s decision to move against the reformers stemmed not only from his disdain for the new schedule and curriculum but also from his fear that the reformers would eventually push religion out of the university. In response to Fairfield, the reformers, led by Woodberry, Emerson, and Church, loudly resisted the proposed changes, claiming that the changes were made too hastily without properly consulting faculty members, causing further turmoil. Fairfield had found the excuse he needed. Using the recent outcry from Woodberry, Emerson, and Church as justification, Fairfield allegedly conducted a rump Board of Regents meeting with only four traditionalist Regents in a Lincoln hotel on January 25, 1882. Fairfield brought university students from the Students Christian Association to the Regents to help him argue the case against Woodberry, Emerson, Church, whom Fairfield believed were infidels. The accusations made against Woodberry, Emerson, and Church in the secret meeting served as the basis for Fairfield asking for the Board of Regents to fire the three professors in a meeting the following day. With Fairfield’s case made, the Regents were persuaded and voted to remove Woodberry, Emerson, and Church. [32]

The firings outraged many Nebraskans, who saw this as the last straw, and newspapers across Nebraska became inflamed with both religious and irreligious people criticizing Chancellor Fairfield’s actions. Newspaper columns charged Fairfield with unjustly firing the three professors, being a religious extremist with no tolerance of liberal positions, bringing sectarian warfare into the university, and severely damaging the university’s reputation. [33] During this period, the three professors published a letter in the newspaper that revealed their side of the events. Although the professors disagreed with Fairfield’s religious beliefs, they claimed that religion was not an issue and that the dispute just happened to fall along religious differences between themselves and Fairfield. Instead of focusing on religion, the professors argued for the faculty to have more independence in the classroom, a looser system of discipline that assumed students learned discipline at home, and a standard of admission. They concluded their letter by stating:

Now he [Chancellor Fairfield] – in religion a turncoat, in politics a demagogue, in education a charlatan – is left in supreme control. It is therefore the duty of every intelligent citizen [...] to examine these matters and make their influence felt; for if the university fails it is their fault. [...] it is of the gravest importance that good education be provided in a state that can ill afford to waste its public funds [...] If the state wishes a sectarian college conducted on the ideas of a generation ago, it should approve this action of the board; if the state desires a real university, vitalized by living thought under the influence of the present age, [...] it should denounce this action.[34]

Following the winter’s events, the spring and early summer of 1882 brought the University of Nebraska – Lincoln to a critical period that would decide its future. The appointment of a new liberal to the Board of Regents gave free religionists the numbers to act against Fairfield. And the Regents did act by firing Fairfield on September 30, 1882, satisfying the indignation of many Nebraskans and severing ties with the leader of the traditionalists, which ended the religious conflict over the university. [35] From then on, the public seemed to flow with the current of American thought by gradually moving towards secularizing the University of Nebraska – Lincoln, joining many other public institutions of higher education. The public reasoned that ending the in-house quarrels and becoming secular would improve the university's national reputation, which proved to be the case as the university moved into the twentieth century. The shift towards secular education became permanent as the university continued to reform and recruit faculty members who supported the new style of teaching advocated by Woodberry, Emerson, and Church in the early 1880s.

Following 1882, Christianity still played a significant role on campus but was not officially supported by the school. A university student body survey conducted by an older Howard Caldwell fifteen years after Fairfield’s departure in 1897 showed that of 1,313 students interviewed, 1,177 were either members or adherents to a Christian Church. [36] To support this large group, student-led Christian organizations on campus became the primary vehicle for Christianity at the university well into the twentieth century. Two groups, the YMCA and YWCA, became very prominent beginning in the 1880s and 1890s after Fairfield’s departure. The groups held worship and prayer services for students, helped new students as they arrived on campus by distributing “N-books,” and advocated for social issues, all while remaining separate from the university. [37] Although Christianity remained significant on campus for decades after the university disassociated with Christianity, the struggle between religion and secularism at the University of Nebraska – Lincoln was over; secularism had won.

The University of Nebraska – Lincoln transitioned from a Christian-based nonsectarian university into a secular one during the late nineteenth century. This change was due to drastic societal shifts in America and power struggles between free religionists and traditionalist Christians within Nebraska regarding the university's direction. Unlike their predecessors 150 years ago, current students are expected to take responsibility for developing their morality without the university providing a religious basis. Furthermore, the university is now wholly secular and concentrates on classroom education, innovative research, and equipping students for their careers. With the traditional educational approach traded for secularism, the university will continue to produce citizens accordingly, affecting the culture of Nebraska and the country for years to come.

Notes

1. Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. “cathedral school.” (Encyclopedia Britannica, June 27, 2013). https://www.britannica.com/topic/cathedral-school.; L. W. B. Brockliss. The University of Oxford: A History. (Oxford, England: Oxford University Press, 2016): 3-9. Google Books, https://www.google.com/books/edition/The_University_of_Oxford/iMDmCwAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=Brockliss,+L.+W.+B.+The+University+of+Oxford:+A+History.+Oxford,+England:+Oxford+University+Press,+2016.&printsec=frontcover.
2. “University of Pennsylvania.” Benjamin Franklin Historical Society, 2014. http://www.benjamin-franklin-history.org/university-of-pennsylvania/#:~:text=The%20academy%20was%20non%20sectarian,no%20one%20denomination%20would%20dominate.
3. “From John Adams to Massachusetts Militia, 11 October 1798,” Founders Online, National Archives, https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Adams/99-02-02-3102.
4. Jorgenson, Lloyd P. “Historical Origins of Non-Sectarian Public Schools: The Birth of a Tradition.” The Phi Delta Kappan 44, no. 9 (1963): 407–414. http://www.jstor.org/stable/20342989.
5. United States Continental Congress, United States, and Continental Congress Broadside Collection. An ordinance for the government of the territory of the United States, North-west of the river Ohio. [Philadelphia: s.n, 1787] Online Text. https://www.loc.gov/item/90898153/.
6. “Morrill Act (1862).” National Archives and Records Administration. National Archives and Records Administration, 2022. https://www.archives.gov/milestone-documents/morrill-act.
7. C., G. “‘Where The Men Come From.’” Hesperian Student (Lincoln, NE). June 1, 1872, 1. Nebraska Newspapers. https://nebnewspapers.unl.edu/lccn/sn96080316/1872-06-01/ed-1/seq-1/.
8. Nebraska Const. art. I, § 4 (1875).
9. Nebraska Const. art. VII, § 11 (1875).
10. Howard W. Caldwell. Chapter II. “The University of Nebraska,” in Education in Nebraska, edited by Herbert B. Adams, 17 (Washington D.C.: Gov't Print. Off., 1902): 58-59. Google Books, https://books.google.com/books?id=_66gAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false.
11. Knoll, Robert E. Prairie University: A History of the University of Nebraska. Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press and the Alumni Association of the University of Nebraska-Lincoln: Lincoln & London, 1995. 10.; Manley, Robert N. Centennial History of the University of Nebraska. Lincoln, NE: Univ. of Nebraska Press, 1969. Archives & Special Collections, University of Nebraska-Lincoln. 23, 41, 49-51. https://unlhistory.unl.edu/legacy/manley/ld3668m31969-manley-unl.html.
12. Knoll, Prairie University, 6-9.; Manley, Centennial History, 22, 41, 47-48.
13. Butler, David. Address of the Inauguration of Allen R. Benton, as Chancellor of the University of Nebraska. Archives & Special Collections, University of Nebraska-Lincoln. RG 05-02-\/00. Box 1. Folder 1.
14. University of Nebraska Board of Regents. Minutes and Meeting Agendas, Board of Regents Records 1869-1872, Archives & Special Collections, University of Nebraska-Lincoln. RG 01-01-02. 8.
15. Caldwell, Howard. “What We Need.” Hesperian Student (Lincoln, NE). January 1, 1876, 3. Nebraska Newspapers. https://nebnewspapers.unl.edu/lccn/sn96080316/1876-01-01/ed-1/seq-3/.
16. “The Panic of 1873.” PBS. Public Broadcasting Service, 2023. https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/features/grant-panic/.
17. Manley, Centennial History, 30.
18. Manley, Centennial History, 48.
19. “Sectarianism in the University.” Hesperian Student (Lincoln, NE). February 1, 1875. Nebraska Newspapers. https://nebnewspapers.unl.edu/lccn/sn96080316/1875-02-01/ed-1/seq-6/#words=Zay.
20. C., A. ""Elements of Prejudice in Religious Discussion"." Hesperian Student (Lincoln, NE), Jan 1, 1876, 6. Nebraska Newspapers. nebnewspapers.unl.edu/lccn/sn96080316/1876-01-01/ed-1/seq-6/#words=moral+religion+religionists+universal.; “Sectarianism in the University,” Hesperian Student, February 1, 1875.; Sehat, David. "The American Moral Establishment: Religion and Liberalism in the Nineteenth Century." Order No. 3272547, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, 2007. https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/210603584.pdf.
21. Benton, Allen R. Speeches, and Family Correspondence 1871-1876. Archives & Special Collections, University of Nebraska-Lincoln. RG 05-02-00. Box 1. Folder 1.
22. Manley, Centennial History, 47.; “Sectarianism in the University,” Hesperian Student, February 1, 1875.
23. Benton, Inauguration Address, Archives & Special Collections, University of Nebraska-LincolnRG 05-02-00, Box 1, Folder 1.
24. Caldwell, Education in Nebraska, 122.
25. Knoll, Prairie University, 13.
26. Manley, Centennial History, 54.
27. Manley, Centennial History, 64, 65.
28. Fairfield, Edmund B. Inauguration of Edmund Fairfield. Archives & Special Collections, University of Nebraska-Lincoln. RG 05-03-01. Box 1. Folder 1.
29. Knoll, Prairie University, 13, 14.; Manley, Centennial History, 64, 65.
30. Manley, Centennial History, 64, 65.
31. Manley, Centennial History, 67.
32. Manley, Centennial History, 69, 70.
33. “The Chancellor.” Nebraska Advertiser, February 16, 1882. Nebraska Newspapers. https://nebnewspapers.unl.edu/lccn/sn84020109/1882-02-16/ed-1/seq-8/.
34. Woodberry, George E., George Church, and Harrington Emerson. “The Other Side: The Statements of Professors Church, Emerson, and Woodberry on the University Controversy.” Omaha Daily Bee, February 13, 1882. 4. Nebraska Newspapers. https://nebnewspapers.unl.edu/lccn/sn99021999/1882-02-13/ed-1/seq-4/.
35. University of Nebraska Board of Regents. Minutes and Meeting Agendas, Board of Regents Records 1869-1872. Archives & Special Collections, University of Nebraska-Lincoln. RG 01-01-02. 416, 417.
36. Caldwell, Education in Nebraska, 60-61.
37. Y.W.C.A., Student Life Records. Archives & Special Collections, University of Nebraska-Lincoln Libraries. RG 38-03-02. https://archivespec.unl.edu/findingaids/rg38-03-02-ywca-unl.html.

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• Sehat, David. "The American Moral Establishment: Religion and Liberalism in the Nineteenth Century." Order No. 3272547, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, 2007. https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/210603584.pdf.
• “The Chancellor.” Nebraska Advertiser, February 16, 1882. 8. Nebraska Newspapers. https://nebnewspapers.unl.edu/lccn/sn84020109/1882-02-16/ed-1/seq-8/.
• “The Industrial Revolution in the United States: Classroom Materials at the Library of Congress: Library of Congress.” The Library of Congress, 2010. https://www.loc.gov/classroom-materials/industrial-revolution-in-the-united-states/#:~:text=Following%20the%20Civil%20War%2C%20industrialization,or%20the%20American%20Industrial%20Revolution.
• “The Panic of 1873.” PBS. Public Broadcasting Service, 2023. https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/features/grant-panic/.
• United States Continental Congress, United States, and Continental Congress Broadside Collection. An ordinance for the government of the territory of the United States, North-west of the river Ohio. [Philadelphia: s.n, 1787] Online Text. https://www.loc.gov/item/90898153/.
• University Hall. UNL Buildings and Grounds. Archives & Special Collections, University of Nebraska-Lincoln. RG 52-02-00. Box 23. Folder University Hall.
• University of Nebraska Board of Regents. Minutes and Meeting Agendas, Board of Regents Records 1869-1872. Archives & Special Collections, University of Nebraska-Lincoln. RG 01-01-02.
• “University of Pennsylvania.” Benjamin Franklin Historical Society, 2014. http://www.benjamin-franklin-history.org/university-of-pennsylvania/#:~:text=The%20academy%20was%20non%20sectarian,no%20one%20denomination%20would%20dominate.
• Woodberry, George, George Church, and Harrington Emerson. “The Other Side: The Statements of Professors Church, Emerson, and Woodberry on the University Controversy.” Omaha Daily Bee, February 13, 1882. 4. Nebraska Newspapers. https://nebnewspapers.unl.edu/lccn/sn99021999/1882-02-13/ed-1/seq-4/.
• Y.W.C.A., Student Life Records. Archives & Special Collections, University of Nebraska-Lincoln Libraries. RG 38-03-02. https://archivespec.unl.edu/findingaids/rg38-03-02-ywca-unl.html.